Counterpoint

The term “counterpoint” comes from the Latin “contrapunctus,” meaning “note against note.” Whenever two or more melodies sound at the same time, we consider this an example of counterpoint. The term was first used in the fourteenth century to describe the combination of simultaneously sounding musical lines according to a system of rules. Sets of rules governing how counterpoint works vary among different tonal styles and time periods. This chapter seeks to lay out the most general guiding principles for counterpoint with two parts, which are shared among a wide range of tonal styles. The most important concepts related to understanding contrapuntal structure include (1) consonance and dissonance, and (2) types of motion.

Consonance and dissonance

The concepts of consonance and dissonance, as applied to harmonic intervals formed between two parts, will help to guide our understanding of counterpoint. Consonant intervals are generally considered to be stable or create “agreement,” bringing tonal resolution. Perceptions of consonance differ among styles and time periods; this chapter will consider consonant intervals to be the perfect consonances P1, P5, and P8, and the imperfect consonances mi3, MA3, mi6, and MA6.

Dissonant intervals are generally considered to be unstable or create “disagreement,” bringing tension and impelling the music forward to a more stable point. This chapter will consider dissonant intervals to be the P4, mi2, MA2, mi7, MA7, and tritone (A4/d5). To illustrate one perception of consonance and dissonance, as they relate to intervals, scholar Leo Kraft offers a continuum, in which every interval is placed according to its degree of “stability” or “activity.” This chart appears in Figure 21-1.

In general, dissonant intervals need to be treated with care because of their instability. To this end, it is best to approach and resolve dissonant intervals by step to a consonant interval.

Types of motion

Understanding the types of motion between two parts is critical to understanding how counterpoint works. There are four types of motion:

1. Parallel: motion resulting from two parts moving in the same direction (both up or both down) by the same “amount,” such that the starting and ending intervals are of the same quantity (e.g., parallel thirds)
2. Similar: motion resulting from two parts moving in the same direction (both up or both down)
3. Oblique: motion in which one part moves, while the other stays on the same pitch
4. Contrary: motion resulting from two parts moving in opposite directions (one up, the other down)

Example 21-1 provides an illustration of each type of motion in musical notation. In general, we will prefer contrary and oblique motion, especially when dealing with dissonant intervals. We will use parallel motion only with imperfect consonances.

Examples of two-part counterpoint

The best way to see how two-part counterpoint works is not necessarily to memorize lists of rules, but rather to examine different musical examples to see what general principles they have in common. If you are interested in learning how to write counterpoint in a specific tonal style, you can focus your study on a particular body of music. This chapter looks at counterpoint examples from a wide range of tonal styles and thus draws some general conclusions from what most share in common.

Example 21-2 shows a short passage of counterpoint, with annotations showing the analysis of harmonic intervals between parts. This example has the following features:

• It uses contrary and oblique motion exclusively
• It uses mostly stepwise motion in each part
• The dissonant P4 is approached and resolved by step in the lower voice while the upper voice is sustained

Example 21‑2. Annotated transcription of the Beach Boys, “Good Vibrations,” 3:13–3:19^[2]

Listen to the full track on Spotify.

Learn about 20th-century American rock band the Beach Boys by reading this Oxford Music Online article, written by Rob C. Wegman.

Example 21‑3, an excerpt of a fugue by Romantic composer Clara Schumann, has the following features:

• When one line is active, the other is less so
• It uses mostly stepwise motion
• Its leaps occur only when outlining chords

Example 21‑4 shows an excerpt by Renaissance composer Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi, with annotations showing the analysis of harmonic intervals between parts. Note that the bottom staff in this example sounds an octave lower than written, because the treble clef has an “8” written just below it.^[3] The example has the following features:

• Similar to Example 21-3, when one line is active, the other is less so
• It uses mostly stepwise motion
• All dissonant intervals (highlighted in the example) resolve by step to consonant ones

Example 21-5, a transcription of a song by Van Morrison, features colored annotations showing different types of motion, as well as numbers indicating an analysis of harmonic intervals between parts. The colored highlighting indicates motion: oblique motion in yellow, contrary motion in green, and parallel motion in blue. The notable features of Example 21-5 include:

• Use of consonant intervals on downbeats
• Use of oblique motion in the first half of each bar, shown in yellow
• Use of contrary motion in the last half of each bar, shown in green
• Limited use of parallel motion with imperfect consonances only, shown in blue
• Emphasis on chord tones in melody
• Use of chord roots on downbeats in the bass

Example 21-5 also features links to black-and-white renderings of each type of motion beneath the audio.

Example 21-6 shows an analysis of harmonic interval content in a lively duet for two violins by Béla Bartók. Most dissonant intervals, highlighted in the example, are approached and resolved by step to a consonant interval, and they are used sparingly. Example 21-7 shows the same excerpt with annotations showing types of motion. Observe the following features:

• Oblique motion, highlighted in yellow, and contrary motion, highlighted in green, are used more than any other type of motion
• The only harmonic intervals used with parallel motion, highlighted in blue, are sixths and thirds (imperfect consonances)
• Similar motion, highlighted in red, is used the least in this example

Example 21-7 also features links to black-and-white renderings of each type of motion.

Writing two-part counterpoint

From this sample of excerpts we have studied, we can draw some general principles to guide our own writing of music in two parts. While these are not immutable rules, best practices include:

1. Use mostly stepwise motion
2. Leaps should generally outline chord tones
3. Strive for rhythmically independent lines—when one line is active, consider using less activity in the other part
4. Successive dissonances are rare (don’t do it)
5. Prepare and resolve dissonances by step to a consonant interval
6. Prefer contrary and oblique motion
7. Use parallel motion only with successive thirds and sixths

As in the Bartók example, when contrary and oblique motion are used with stepwise motion in one or both parts, and there are no successive dissonant intervals, you can’t go wrong!

Example 21-8 shows three different solutions for writing a contrapuntal line against a pre-existing melody. The first passage, labeled “given passage,” presents the pre-existing melody. After listening to and studying it, we identify the key as C major and likely understand its harmonic implication as I – IV – V – I, with a harmonic rhythm of one chord per bar. Each of the next three passages presents one possible solution in the upper staff with a different rhythmic relationship to the given line, moving more quickly (Solution 1), more slowly (Solution 2), and at the same rate of motion (Solution 3).