Some common methods of organization of harmony in pop and rock

“Despite frequently voiced assertions and their underlying presumptions, there is no single sort of tonal behavior common to all rock music, but rather a spectrum of approaches to scales, harmonic function and voice leading.”^[1]

Although this list is not exhaustive, the following harmony types represent the most common methods of harmonic organization in popular music recordings:

• Functionally tonal
• Functionally modal
• Riff-based
• Shuttle
• Chord loops
• Power chord

Not all categories are mutually exclusive. For example, a recording that uses a chord loop may also be functionally tonal, and a riff-based recording may also use power chords.

FUNCTIONALLY TONAL (T-P-D and/or harmonic sequences)

Functionally tonal harmony draws from major or minor keys and uses tonic-predominant-dominant T-P-D type progressions and/or harmonic sequences that conform to European classical models. The verses of the recording featured in Example 22-1 use a simple, repeating T-P-D progression in F major: I – IV – V. We studied this example previously in Chapter 16 when learning about harmonic function.

Joni Mitchell’s “California,” featured in Example 22-2, uses another T-P-D progression in E major: I – IV – V/V – V. We will study the V/V chord, which has predominant function like the IV chord, in Chapter 31.

Example 22-3 uses a repeating loop of the circle-of-fifths harmonic sequence in C major: ii7 – V7 – I7 – IV7. The first half of the audio example uses just bass and drums, articulating chord roots, and the second half introduces other instruments that articulate the full chords of the progression.

FUNCTIONALLY TONAL (alternative progressions)

Functionally tonal harmony may also use alternative progressions that differ from European classical model, while still drawing from major or minor keys. Example 22-4 uses the primary diatonic chords, but places the V chord before the IV chord, with a repeating chord progression in G major: I – V – IV – I. This progression is common in a lot of popular music. This chord progression, which some music theorists call a “retrogression,” is common in a lot of popular music.

Example 22-5 features a repeating progression in E major: ii – IV – I. This example features what some music theorists call a “plagal expansion,” using the supertonic chord followed by the subdominant to extend predominant function before resolving to tonic. 

Example 22-6 uses another type of plagal expansion, one that uses a major-minor supertonic seventh chord before moving to the minor subdominant triad. Here the progression appears in F major: II7 – iv – I.^[2]

Another common alternative progression uses the subtonic (VII) triad in a major key. Example 22-7 features a repeating chord progression in D major: I – VII – IV. We can also consider this progression an example of a modally functional progression (see below), derived from the mixolydian mode.

FUNCTIONALLY MODAL

Functionally modal harmony draws upon modal scales to create functional harmonic progressions. Example 22-8 features a repeating progression in the E aeolian mode: i – VII – VII – i. Since this progression also alternates between two chords, we consider it to be an example of shuttle as well.

Example 22-9 uses a progression in G mixolydian: I – IV – I – VII – I.

FUNCTIONALLY TONAL or MODAL with ABSENT TONIC

This category includes harmony that is drawn from major, minor, or modal systems but implies the presence of tonic without articulating it, or significantly delays its appearance.^[3]

Example 22-10, a verse of Prince’s “Little Red Corvette,” uses the following repeating progression in D major: IV – V – vi – IV7. While the submediant chord does substitute for tonic function in the verse, the tonic chord does not sound until the chorus section 49 seconds into the recording.

While Prince delays the appearance of the tonic chord (Example 22-10), the entirety of Fleetwood Mac’s “Dreams” never uses it at all. Example 22-11 features an excerpt from this recording, which uses a repeating shuttle progression in C major: IV – V.

RIFF-BASED

Riff-based harmony emerges from the continuous use of short repeated melodies (called “riffs”). Example 22-12 uses a repeating riff in the bass, from which the harmony of the recording is generated. The riff takes its pitches from the F major pentatonic scale, and spans C to F.

Like Example 22-12, Example 22-13 also uses a riff drawn from a pentatonic scale. In this case, it draws from A minor pentatonic using a synthesized cello sound.

SHUTTLE

The term “shuttle” refers to the repeating alternation of two chords. We have already listened to shuttle progressions in Examples 22‑8 and 22-11. Example 22-14 offers another repeating shuttle progression in G major: I – ii.

The intro and verse sections in “Hard to Kill” by Bleached uses a repeating shuttle progression in D minor: i – III, as shown in Example 22-15.

CHORD LOOPS

Chord loops are repeating successions of chords (usually four), and they are ubiquitous in popular music.^[4] Example 22-16 features a repeating chord loop in G major: I – V – vi – IV.

Example 22-17 uses a similar, but rotated, repeating chord loop in G major: vi – IV – I – V.

Example 22-18 reproduces Ben Duinker’s transcription of the repeating D major chord loop in in The Chainsmokers & Coldplay’s “Something Just Like This”: IVadd9 – Aadd4 – Bmi7 – Aadd4. This is also an example of a recording with absent tonic, if you hear D as the tonal center.

POWER CHORDS

Power chords are open fifth chords, played by electric guitar, often amplified with distortion. Example 22-19 uses a repeating progression in F minor with the following power chords: 1⁵ – 4⁵ – 3⁵ – 6⁵.

Example 22-20 uses power chords in a repeating progression in C major: 1⁵ – 4⁵ – 1⁵ – 7⁵. This example also uses a composite meter, which we will study in Chapter 30.

Identifying harmonic organization aurally

While there is great variety in the ways harmony is organized in popular music recordings, you can follow a few steps to learn how to identify systems of organization by ear. First, many students like to identify chord roots. It may help to use an instrument and sing as you listen to first find tonic. Once you can identify the bass line, which often uses chord roots, try putting solfege syllables on the notes you hear. From there, use your knowledge to think about what Roman numerals or chord functions are most logical with the bass line you hear. You can also listen and study for patterns, such as harmonic sequences, shuttles, or chord loops. To determine mode or scale type, you can also try singing a scale in solfege from the tonic you have identified. This can be especially useful for recordings that use modal harmony. As you attempt to classify different recordings according to the types we’ve covered in this chapter, remember that the categories are not mutually exclusive, and multiple systems of organization are possible.